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Of course, you should always check your return values for functions that provide them. Otherwise you can't distinguish between. EOF, and this won't work. You distinguish between the two loop termination cases using one of ferror or feof after the loop. While (PHP 4, PHP 5, PHP 7) while loops are the simplest type of loop in PHP. They behave just like their C counterparts. The basic form of a while statement is. The previous code illustrates a very simple loop. The numbers in the comments identify selected statements. A tracechart is shown alongside the code. In step 1 of the trace, statement 1 of the code is executed, that is 1 is. How do I use bash while loop to repeat certain task under Linux / UNIX operating system? How do I set infinite loops using while statement? The bash while loop is a control flow statement that allows code or. Check out my other tutorials on the Unix Page, and my. Check my blog Table of Contents. C shell problems; Quoting long strings, $ and! The ad hoc parser; Reading one line at a time; File redirection; Signals, Traps and child. An infinite loop (or endless loop) is a sequence of instructions in a computer program which loops endlessly, either due to the loop having no terminating condition, having one that can never be met, or one that causes the. Introduction to Java programming. This tutorial explains the installation and usage of the Java programming language. It also contains examples for standard programming tasks. All examples have been derived from miniterm.c. The type ahead buffer is limited to 255 characters, just like the maximum string length for canonical input processing (<linux/limits.h> or <posix1 Loops are very basic and very useful programming facility that facilitates programmer to execute any block of code lines repeatedly and can be controlled as per conditions added by programmer. It saves writing code several. These Python programs show sets, set syntax and set methods. A set is similar to a dictionary but has no values. Based on.NET 4.5 VB.NET program that uses For Module Module1 Sub Main() ' This loop goes from 0 to 5. For value As Integer = 0 To 5 ' Exit condition if the value is three. If (value = 3) Then Exit For End If. Example 2: using fgets properlywhile (fgets(buffer, buffer. In the case of the end of the file being reached, if characters were read, it returns buffer. If no characters were read, it returns NULL. Again, use ferror or feof to distinguish between the two cases for which fgets returns NULL. Example 3: using fread properlysize. The function reads binary data from a file and stores it in a buffer, reading nmemb items of the specified size (sizeof *buffer in the example) or as many as it can. If it is less than nmemb, an error occurred or the end of the file was reached. If the end of the file was reached or an error occurred, there may have been data read, meaning nret is greater than 0. As a result, what was done with the data read inside the loop must be done one more time to complete processing of the file as much as possible, if desired (whether you choose to process the data read when an error occurs is your option.)After that, the usual ferror/feof check happens. Example 4: using fscanf properlyint nfields = 3. It returns EOF if an error or the end of the file is detected, and no input conversions were matched yet. Otherwise, it returns the number of successfully assigned input items. Like fread, this may be less than expected, which indicates improperly formatted data or an error or the end of the file. If the value didn't signal an error, and the value returned by fscanf isn't EOF, meaning neither ferror nor feof would return a value other than 0, there is badly formatted data (it wouldn't have exited the inner loop otherwise.) If neither is true, the end of the file was detected, and the outer loop condition is triggered, exiting the loop, which signals the end of the file was reached. Note that I used a scanset in the last bit to ignore an invalid line entirely, which only works with a conforming C9. You could do the same thing with a loop using fgetc or with a loop using fgets if you don't have such a C library available (remember to check for the end of the file!)Unlike the other examples, I applied a small concrete case to the fscanf example because formatted input demands it. If it isn't concrete, how can you know for certain that it works? Closing notes. It is my hope that this answer helps someone because this was the only answer I saw that explained how to do it right with at least some sample code rather than paragraphs that don't necessarily explain any of the . The idea was to provide a guiding template to illustrate how to read data from a file appropriately and safely, though obviously it isn't necessarily correct for all use cases. Example 4 actually benefited from its usage because ignorance of errors was desired, though I hope none of those vectors that were ignored were terribly critical, such as the points on a cube for a 3- D map.. What would a cube with only 4 points be for example? Of course there are exceptions, but that is a matter of implementation detail and the desired and available functionalities. Hope this helps someone! Infinite loop - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. An infinite loop (or endless loop) is a sequence of instructions in a computer program which loops endlessly, either due to the loop having no terminating condition, having one that can never be met, or one that causes the loop to start over. In older operating systems with cooperative multitasking, infinite loops normally caused the entire system to become unresponsive. With the now- prevalent preemptive multitasking model, infinite loops usually cause the program to consume all available processor time, but can usually be terminated by the user. Busy wait loops are also sometimes called . One possible cause of a computer . An infinite loop occurs when the condition will never be met, due to some inherent characteristic of the loop. Intentional looping. For example, the games on cartridge- based game consoles typically have no exit condition in their main loop, as there is no operating system for the program to exit to; the loop runs until the console is powered off. Modern interactive computers require that the computer constantly be monitoring for user input or device activity, so at some fundamental level there is an infinite processing idle loop that must continue until the device is turned off or reset. In the Apollo Guidance Computer, for example, this outer loop was contained in the Exec program, and if the computer had absolutely no other work to do it would loop run a dummy job that would simply turn off the . Instead they fall back to an error condition displaying messages to the operator, and enter an infinite loop waiting for the user to either respond to a prompt to continue, or to reset the device. Unintentional looping. Such errors are most common among novice programmers, but can be made by experienced programmers as well, because their causes can be quite subtle. One common cause, for example, is that the programmer intends to iterate over a collection of items such as a linked list, executing the loop code once for each item. Improperly formed links can create a reference loop in the list, where one list element links to one that occurred earlier in the list. This joins part of the list into a circle, causing the program to loop forever. While most infinite loops can be found by close inspection of the code, there is no general method to determine whether a given program will ever halt or will run forever; this is the undecidability of the halting problem. Interruption. This can be done in a task manager, in a terminal with the Control- C command, or by using the kill command or system call. However, this does not always work, as the process may not be responding to signals or the processor may be in an uninterruptible state, such as in the Cyrix coma bug (caused by overlapping uninterruptible instructions in an instruction pipeline). In some cases other signals such as SIGKILL can work, as they do not require the process to be responsive, while in other cases the loop cannot be terminated short of system shutdown. Language support. Most commonly, in unstructured programming this is jump back up (goto), while in structured programming this is an indefinite loop (while loop) set to never end, either by omitting the condition or explicitly setting it to true, as while (true) .. Some languages have special constructs for infinite loops, typically by omitting the condition from an indefinite loop. Examples include Ada (loop .. This could be fixed by moving the x = 1 instruction outside the loop. Essentially what this infinite loop does is to instruct a computer to keep on adding 1 to 1 until 5 is reached. Since 1+1 always equals 2, this will never happen. In some languages, programmer confusion about the mathematical symbols may lead to an unintentional infinite loop. For example, here is a snippet in C: #include< stdio. However, in the line . Instead, this will assign the value of 5 to a at this point in the program. Thus, a will never be able to advance to 1. Variable handling errors. Here is an example (in C): floatx=0. The problem is that the loop terminating condition (x != 1. The same can happen in Python: x=0. Because of the likelihood of tests for equality or not- equality failing unexpectedly, it is safer to use greater- than or less- than tests when dealing with floating- point values. For example, instead of testing whether x equals 1. Another way to fix this particular example would be to use an integer as a loop index, counting the number of iterations that have been performed. A similar problem occurs frequently in numerical analysis: in order to compute a certain result, an iteration is intended to be carried out until the error is smaller than a chosen tolerance. However, because of rounding errors during the iteration, the specified tolerance can never be reached, resulting in an infinite loop. Multi- party loops. Consider a server that always replies with an error message if it does not understand the request. Apparently, there is no possibility for an infinite loop in the server, but if there are two such servers (A and B), and A receives a message of unknown type from B, then A replies with an error message to B, B does not understand the error message and replies to A with its own error message, A does not understand the error message from B and sends yet another error message, and so on ad infinitum. One common example of such situation is an email loop. Pseudo- infinite loops. The actual limit of i depends on the details of the system and compiler used. With arbitrary- precision arithmetic, this loop would continue until the computer's memory could no longer contain i. If i was a signed integer, rather than an unsigned integer, overflow would be undefined. In this case, the loop could be optimized into an infinite loop. Infinite recursion. When using structural recursion, infinite recursions are usually caused by a missing base case or by a faulty inductive step. An example of such a faulty structural recursion: (define (sum- from- 1- ton)(+ n(sum- from- 1- to(sub. The function sum- from- 1- to will run out of stack space, because the recursion never stops . To correct the problem, a base case is added.(define (sum- from- 1- to*n)(cond((= n. This revised function will only run out of stack space if n is less than 1 or n is too large; error checking would remove the first case. For information on recursive functions which never run out of stack space, see tail recursion. See also: Recursion, for an alternate explanation of infinite recursion. Break statement. Example in PHP: while(true). These are most common and visible while debugginguser interface code. A C- like pseudocode example of an Alderson loop, where the program is supposed to sum numbers given by the user until zero is given, but where the programmer has used the wrong operator: sum=0; while(true). 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A state of having limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome. Measurement of uncertainty. A set of possible states or outcomes where probabilities are assigned to each possible state or outcome . The essential fact is that 'risk' means in some cases a quantity susceptible of measurement, while at other times it is something distinctly not of this character; and there are far- reaching and crucial differences in the bearings of the phenomena depending on which of the two is really present and operating.. It will appear that a measurable uncertainty, or 'risk' proper, as we shall use the term, is so far different from an unmeasurable one that it is not in effect an uncertainty at all. We say that you are uncertain about them. You are uncertain, to varying degrees, about everything in the future; much of the past is hidden from you; and there is a lot of the present about which you do not have full information. Uncertainty is everywhere and you cannot escape from it. Dennis Lindley, Understanding Uncertainty (2. For example, if it is unknown whether or not it will rain tomorrow, then there is a state of uncertainty. The Economics Of Uncertainty And Information Laffont Pdf ViewerIf probabilities are applied to the possible outcomes using weather forecasts or even just a calibrated probability assessment, the uncertainty has been quantified. Suppose it is quantified as a 9. If there is a major, costly, outdoor event planned for tomorrow then there is a risk since there is a 1. Furthermore, if this is a business event and $1. These situations can be made even more realistic by quantifying light rain vs. ECON0706 Uncertainty and Information. Introduction to the Economics of Uncertainty and Information. The Analytics of Uncertainty and Information. The Economics of Uncertainty and Information on ResearchGate, the professional network for scientists. The Economics of Uncertainty and Information may be used in conjunction with Loffont's Fundamentals of Economics in an advanced course in microeconomics. The Economics of Uncertainty and Information (MIT Press) Jean-Jacques Laffont. The End of Alchemy: Money. Theory of Decision under Uncertainty. Itzhak Gilboa is a professor in the Berglas School of Economics. Uncertainty (Information theory). That is useful if the organizer of the event is . Most would be willing to pay a premium to avoid the loss. An insurance company, for example, would compute an EOL as a minimum for any insurance coverage, then add onto that other operating costs and profit. Since many people are willing to buy insurance for many reasons, then clearly the EOL alone is not the perceived value of avoiding the risk. Quantitative uses of the terms uncertainty and risk are fairly consistent from fields such as probability theory, actuarial science, and information theory. Some also create new terms without substantially changing the definitions of uncertainty or risk. For example, surprisal is a variation on uncertainty sometimes used in information theory. But outside of the more mathematical uses of the term, usage may vary widely. In cognitive psychology, uncertainty can be real, or just a matter of perception, such as expectations, threats, etc. Vagueness or ambiguity are sometimes described as . The difference here is that this uncertainty is about the human definitions and concepts, not an objective fact of nature. It is usually modeled by some variation on Zadeh's fuzzy logic. It has been argued that ambiguity, however, is always avoidable while uncertainty (of the . That is, there may be uncertainty about whether a new rocket design will work, but this uncertainty can be removed with further analysis and experimentation. At the subatomic level, however, uncertainty may be a fundamental and unavoidable property of the universe. In quantum mechanics, the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle puts limits on how much an observer can ever know about the position and velocity of a particle. This may not just be ignorance of potentially obtainable facts but that there is no fact to be found. There is some controversy in physics as to whether such uncertainty is an irreducible property of nature or if there are . A derived work is for example the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) Technical Note 1. The uncertainty of the result of a measurement generally consists of several components. The components are regarded as random variables, and may be grouped into two categories according to the method used to estimate their numerical values: By propagating the variances of the components through a function relating the components to the measurement result, the combined measurement uncertainty is given as the square root of the resulting variance. The simplest form is the standard deviation of a repeated observation. In metrology, physics, and engineering, the uncertainty or margin of error of a measurement, when explicitly stated, is given by a range of values likely to enclose the true value. This may be denoted by error bars on a graph, or by the following notations: measured value . For example, applying 1. The precision is symmetric around the last digit. In this case its half a tenth up and half a tenth down, so 1. Thus it is understood that 1. But if the accuracy is within two tenths, the uncertainty is . The numbers in parenthesis apply to the numeral left of themselves, and are not part of that number, but part of a notation of uncertainty. They apply to the least significant digits. For instance, 7. 00. This can occur when using a logarithmic scale, for example. Often, the uncertainty of a measurement is found by repeating the measurement enough times to get a good estimate of the standard deviation of the values. Then, any single value has an uncertainty equal to the standard deviation. However, if the values are averaged, then the mean measurement value has a much smaller uncertainty, equal to the standard error of the mean, which is the standard deviation divided by the square root of the number of measurements. This procedure neglects systematic errors, however. When the uncertainty represents the standard error of the measurement, then about 6. For example, it is likely that for 3. If the width of the interval is doubled, then probably only 4. These values follow from the properties of the normal distribution, and they apply only if the measurement process produces normally distributed errors. In that case, the quoted standard errors are easily converted to 6. The lower the accuracy and precision of an instrument, the larger the measurement uncertainty is. Notice that precision is often determined as the standard deviation of the repeated measures of a given value, namely using the same method described above to assess measurement uncertainty. However, this method is correct only when the instrument is accurate. When it is inaccurate, the uncertainty is larger than the standard deviation of the repeated measures, and it appears evident that the uncertainty does not depend only on instrumental precision. Uncertainty and the media. Also, in the public realm, there are often many scientific voices giving input on a single topic. For example, global warming contrarian activists took the advice of Frank Luntz to frame global warming as an issue of scientific uncertainty, which was a precursor to the conflict frame used by journalists when reporting the issue. Because the general public (in the United States) generally trusts scientists, when science stories are covered without alarm- raising cues from special interest organizations (religious groups, environmental organization, political factions, etc.) they are often covered in a business related sense, in an economic- development frame or a social progress frame. Numerical values should only be expressed to those digits that are physically meaningful, which are referred to as significant figures. Uncertainty is involved in every measurement, such as measuring a distance, a temperature, etc., the degree depending upon the instrument or technique used to make the measurement. Similarly, uncertainty is propagated through calculations so that the calculated value has some degree of uncertainty depending upon the uncertainties of the measured values and the equation used in the calculation. According to economist Frank Knight, it is different from risk, where there is a specific probability assigned to each outcome (as when flipping a fair coin). Uncertainty involves a situation that has unknown probabilities, while the estimated probabilities of possible outcomes need not add to unity. In entrepreneurship: New products, services, firms and even markets are often created in the absence of probability estimates. According to entrepreneurship research, expert entrepreneurs predominantly use experience based heuristics called effectuation (as opposed to causality) to overcome uncertainty. In metrology, measurement uncertainty is a central concept quantifying the dispersion one may reasonably attribute to a measurement result. Such an uncertainty can also be referred to as a measurement error. In daily life, measurement uncertainty is often implicit (. The expected measurement uncertainty of many measuring instruments (scales, oscilloscopes, force gages, rulers, thermometers, etc.) is often stated in the manufacturer's specification. Uncertainty has been a common theme in art, both as a thematic device (see, for example, the indecision of Hamlet), and as a quandary for the artist (such as Martin Creed's difficulty with deciding what artworks to make). See also. Udacity: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence^Douglas Hubbard (2. How to Measure Anything: Finding the Value of Intangibles in Business, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons. Description, contents, and preview.^Jean- Jacques Laffont (1. The Economics of Uncertainty and Information, MIT Press. Description and chapter- preview links.^Jean- Jacques Laffont (1. Essays in the Economics of Uncertainty, Harvard University Press. |
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